UNIVERSITY  OF   CALIFORNIA  PUBLICATIONS 


COLLEGE  OF  AGRICULTURE 

AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 

BERKELEY,  CALIFORNIA 


GRAIN  SORGHUMS 


BY 
B.  A.  MADSON 


BULLETIN  No.  278 

April,  1917 


UNIVERSITY   OF  CALIFORNIA  PRESS 

BERKELEY 

1917 


Benjamin  Ide  Wheeler,  President  of  the  University. 

EXPERIMENT  STATION  STAFF 

HEADS   OP   DIVISIONS 

Thomas  Forsyth  Hunt,  Director. 

Edward  J.  Wickson,  Horticulture   (Emeritus). 

Herbert, J.  Webber,  Director  Citrus  Experiment  Station;  Plant  Breeding. 

Hubert  E.  Van  Norman,  Vice-Director;   Dairy  Management. 

William  A.  Setchell,  Botany. 

Myer  E.  Jaffa,  Nutrition. 

Robert  H.  Loughridge,  Soil  Chemistry  and  Physics   (Emeritus). 

Charles  W.  Woodworth,  Entomology. 

Ralph  E.  Smith,  Plant  Pathology. 

J.  Eliot  Coit,  Citriculture. 

John  W.  Gilmore,  Agronomy. 

Charles  F.  Shaw,  Soil  Technology. 

John  W.  Gregg,  Landscape  Gardening  and  Floriculture. 

Frederic  T.  Bioletti,  Viticulture  and  Enology. 

Warren  T.  Clarke,  Agricultural  Extension. 

John  S.  Burd,  Agricultural  Chemistry. 

Charles  B.  Lipman,  Soil  Chemistry  and  Bacteriology. 

Clarence  M.  Haring,  Veterinary  Science   and   Bacteriology. 

Ernest  B.  Babcock,  Genetics. 

Gordon  H.  True,  Animal  Husbandry. 

James  T.  Barrett,  Plant  Pathology. 

Fritz  W.  Woll,  Animal  Nutrition. 
*A.  V.  Stubenrauch,  Pomology. 

Walter  Mulford,  Forestry. 

W.  P.  Kelley,  Agricultural  Chemistry. 

H.  J.  Quayle,  Entomology. 

D.  T.  Mason,  Forestry. 

J.  B.  Davidson,  Agricultural  Engineering. 

Elwood  Mead,  Rural  Institutions. 

H.  S.  Reed,  Plant  Physiology. 

William  G.  Hummel,  Agricultural  Education. 

John  E.  Dougherty,  Poultry  Husbandry. 

S.  S.  Rogers,  Olericulture. 
fFRANK  Adams,  Irrigation  Practice. 

H.  S.  Baird,  Dairy  Industry. 

David  N.  Morgan,  Assistant  to  the  Director. 

Mrs.  D.  L.  Bunnell,  Librarian. 

DIVISION   OF  AGRONOMY 

John  W.  Gilmore  B.  A.  Madson 

R,  L.  Adams  W.  E.  Packard 

P.  B.  Kennedy  George  W.  Hendry 


*  Died  February  12,  1917. 

fin  co-operation  with  office  of  Public  Roads  and   Rural  Engineering,   U.  S. 
Department  of  Agriculture. 


GRAIN  SORGHUMS 

By  B.  A.  MADSON 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Introduction 227 

History  in  California  228 

Adaptation: 

Climatic  Requirements  229 

Drouth  Eesistance 229 

Soil  Eequirements   229 

Types  and  Varieties: 

Classification  of  the  Sorghums  230 

Type  and  Varietal  Characteristics  230 

Variety  Tests  with  Grain  Sorghums  at  Davis  233 

Variety  Tests  with  Grain  Sorghums  at  Kearney  Park  236 

Culture: 

Preparation  of  the  Field  for  Sorghums  236 

Preparation  of  the  Seed  Bed  237 

Time  of  Seeding  237 

Method  and  Rate  of  Seeding  238 

Listing  Grain  Sorghums  239 

Care  of  the  Crop  239 

Irrigation  240 

Harvesting  the  Grain  Crop 240 

Time  of  Harvesting  240 

Method  of  Harvesting  241 

Curing  241 

Threshing    242 

Grain  Sorghums  as  Forage  Crops  243 

Yield  of  Forage  from  Experimental  Plats  at  Davis  243 

Grain  Sorghums  in  the  Eotation  244 

Seed  Selection  and  Improvement  245 

Value  as  Feed:  . 

Composition  of  Grain  247 

Relative  Value  of  Various  Varieties  247 

Danger  from  Poisoning  248 

Enemies  of  Grain  Sorghums  248 

INTRODUCTION 

The  transition  from  extensive  to  more  intensive  methods  of  farm- 
ing, together  with  the  rapid  development  of  the  livestock  industry 

which  has  taken  place  in  California  during  the  past  few  years,  has 
created  a  demand  for  crops  which  would  produce  a  dependable  quan- 


228  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 

tity  of  grain  and  forage  on  the  vast  areas  of  imirrigated  land  during 
the  dry,  hot,  summer  months.  The  crops  which  have  thus  far  shown 
the  greatest  promise  in  filling  this  demand  are  the  grain  sorghums. 
While  they  are  by  no  means  new  crops  in  this  state,  they  have  been 
of  relatively  little  importance  agriculturally  since  their  production 
has  been  confined  largely  to  a  few  rather  circumscribed  localities. 
For  this  reason  general  information  regarding  their  production  is 
lacking,  as  is  evidenced  by  the  large  number  of  inquiries  received  by 
this  department  during  the  past  three  or  four  years.  It  is,  therefore, 
the  purpose  of  this  publication  to  set  forth  briefly  the  information 
which  has  been  gathered  through  experimentation  and  observations, 
with  the  hope  that  it  may  be  of  service  to  the  farmer  who  is  contem- 
plating the  production  of  these  crops. 

HISTORY  IN  CALIFORNIA 

The  history  of  the  grain  sorghums  in  this  state,  as  well  as  in  the 
United  States,  dates  back  to  1874,  when  a  small  consignment  of  White 
and  Brown  Durra  was  brought  to  California  from  Egypt.  They  were 
taken  to  the  interior  valleys,  where  they  at  once  demonstrated  their 
ability  to  withstand  the  hot,  dry  California  summer,  and  very  soon 
became  established  as  a  permanent  crop.  The  Kafirs  were  introduced 
from  the  great  plains  a  few  years  later  and  were  followed  in  1886 
by  Milo,  which  was  brought  from  Texas.  The  latter  crop  soon  demon- 
strated its  superiority  over  the  earlier  introductions,  and  quickly 
attained  a  prominent  place  among  the  grain  sorghums,  a  position 
which  it  has  held  to  the  present  day, 

While  the  grain  sorghums  have  not  risen  into  prominence  as  have 
some  other  crops,  there,  nevertheless,  has  been  a  normal  and  continual 
increase  in  their  production.  In  1899  the  total  acreage  of  grain 
sorghums  in  California  was  20,218  acres,  yielding  420,452  bushels  of 
grain.  In  1909  the  acreage  had  increased  to  44,308  acres,  and  the 
production  to  938,049  bushels.  Thus  in  ten  years  the  acreage  had 
increased  119.2  per  cent,  while  the  yield  had  increased  123.1  per  cent. 
Unfortunately  no  statistics  are  available  on  the  production  since 
that  date,  but  there  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  the  increase  in 
production  has  been  even  greater  than  for  the  ten  years  given. 
Especially  worthy  of  mention  is  the  development  of  the  grain  sor- 
ghum industry  in  the  Imperial  Valley,  in  which  section  sorghum  is 
at  the  present  time  one  of  the  leading  crops.  The  counties  leading 
in  the  production  of  grain  sorghums  in  1909  were  Tulare,  Stanislaus, 
Kings,  San  Joaquin  and  Kern,  in  the  order  mentioned;  the  first  three 
contained  over  one-half  the  total  acreage  of  the  state. 


GRAIN  SORGHUMS  229 

ADAPTATION 

Climatic  Requirements. — The  grain  sorghums  are  of  tropical 
origin,  attaining  their  maximum  development  in  regions  having  high 
temperatures  and  relatively  low  humidity  during  the  growing  season. 
Most  of  the  varieties  seem  to  be  very  susceptible  to  low  temperatures, 
a  fact  which  might  militate  against  their  use  in  sections  where  the 
average  daily  temperature  during  the  growing  season  is  low,  or  in 
sections  having  wide  daily  temperature  ranges.  Experiments  and 
observations  in  this  state,  however,  would  seem  to  indicate  that  they 
can  be  grown  successfully  in  all  the  interior  valleys,  and  under  these 
conditions  constitute  a  very  commendable  substitute  for  corn.  They 
have  not,  however,  given  as  good  results  along  the  coast  in  regions 
subjected  to  the  cool  ocean  breezes  or  at  elevations  above  5000  feet, 
though  it  is  quite  possible  that  varieties  may  yet  be  obtained  which 
will  give  fair  results  even  under  these  conditions. 

Drouth  Resistance. — All  varieties  of  sorghums  are  drouth-resistant, 
and  are  considered  among  the  surest  of  dry-land  crops,  though  this 
quality  is  possessed  to  a  greater  degree  by  the  grain  sorghums  than 
by  any  of  the  other  types.  Their  ability  to  withstand  drouth,  how- 
ever, is  apparently  due  to  their  ability  to  make  economical  use  of  the 
water  available  rather  than  to  their  low  water  requirements. 

While  the  grain  sorghums  as  a  class  are  comparatively  shallow 
rooted,  the  roots  are  very  much  branched,  completely  filling  the  upper 
three  feet  of  soil  with  a  network  of  fine  roots.  This  extensive  root 
development,  together  with  other  physiological  characteristics,  enables 
them  to  utilize  a  larger  proportion  of  the  soil  moisture  than  that  used 
by  most  other  plants.  Furthermore  most  of  the  varieties  are  able  to 
withstand  a  prolonged  period  of  drouth  without  apparent  injury. 

Other  things  being  equal,  however,  the  yields  obtained  will  usually 
be  in  direct  proportion  to  the  supply  of  moisture  available.  In  many 
instances,  with  proper  attention  to  details,  good  results  have  been 
obtained  with  a  precipitation  of  eight  to  ten  inches.  When  the  pre- 
cipitation is  less  than  eight  to  ten  inches,  however,  it  is  doubtful  if 
paying  returns  can  be  obtained  unless  considerable  moisture  is  carried 
over  in  the  soil  from  previous  seasons.  With  the  annual  precipitation 
greater  than  twelve  inches  good  results  can  nearly  always  be  obtained 
if  proper  precaution  is  taken  to  conserve  the  moisture. 

Soil  Requirements. — Grain  sorghums  may  be  grown  on  almost  any 
soil  that  admits  of  ready  cultivation.  Like  corn,  they  prefer  a  sweet 
soil,  loamy  in  character  and  high  in  fertility.  Very  sandy  soils  or 
very  heavy  soils  are  not  desirable.  In  the  former  type  difficulty  is 
often  experienced  in  storing  sufficient  moisture  for  the  use  of  the  crop. 


230  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 

Heavy  soils,  on  the  other  hand,  are  difficult  to  handle,  and  are  apt 
to  be  cold  and  in  poor  physical  condition  at  the  time  for  planting, 
which  may  result  in  a  poor  stand. 

Soils  containing  alkali  are  also  objectionable  but  the  sorghums 
are  more  resistant  to  alkali  than  most  field  crops.  Nevertheless,  large 
amounts  of  soluble  salts  in  the  soil  will  exert  an  injurious  effect  upon 
the  growth  of  the  plants,  thus  decreasing  the  yield. 


TYPES  AND  VARIETIES 

The  sorghums  (Andropogon  sorghum)  include  grain  sorghums, 
sweet  sorghums,  broom  corn,  and  probably  also  Sudan  grass  and 
Tunis  grass,  at  least  the  relationship  between  the  former  and  the 
latter  two  is  very  close.  The  division  into  agricultural  groups  or 
sub-species  is  based  largely  upon  physical  characteristics  of  the  plants, 
and  the  purpose  for  which  they  are  grown.  Also  rather  closely  re- 
lated to  the  sorghums  is  Johnson  grass  {Andropogon  halipensis),  a 
well  known  weed  pest  in  some  portions  of  the  state. 

While  the  sorghums  are  self -fertile,  a  great  deal  of  natural  hybrid- 
ization takes  place  under  normal  conditions,  not  only  between  varieties 
of  the  same  type  but  between  the  various  types.  When  different 
varieties  of  the  sorghums  or  any  of  the  sorghums  and  Sudan  or  Tunis 
grass  are  grown  in  adjacent  fields,  a  large  number  of  natural  hybrids 
usually  appear.  This  fact  is  significant  as  it  shows  the  necessity  of 
keeping  the  seed  plats  isolated  in  order  to  maintain  a  pure  strain. 
Hybrids  with  Johnson  grass,  on  the  other  hand,  are  apparently  rare. 

The  grain  sorghums  are  divided  into  groups  as  follows :  Durras, 
Kafirs,  Kaoliangs,  and  Shallu,  this  division  being  based  largely  on 
head  and"  plant  characteristics.  The  Durra  group  includes  White  and 
Brown  Durra,  Feterita  and  the  Milos.  As  a  whole  they  are  early 
maturing,  with  rather  short,  dry,  leafless  stalks.  The  heads  are 
thick,  compact,  ovate  or  egg  shaped  and  may  be  either  erect  or 
pendent,  depending  upon  the  variety  and  cultural  conditions.  The 
White  and  Brown  Durras,  more  commonly  known  as  Jerusalem  corn 
and  Egyptian  corn,  have  very  dry,  leafless  stalks,  with  large,  chaffy 
pendent  heads  and  decidedly  flattened  seeds.  The  white-seeded 
variety  shatters  readily  and  is  also  often  attacked  by  the  birds.  It 
is,  however,  the  earliest  maturing  of  the  Durras. 

Feterita,  a  rather  recent  introduction  which  has  created  consider- 
able interest  during  the  past  few  years,  is  rather  tall,  moderately 
leafy,  with  erect  heads  and  plump   bluish-white   seed.     It  is   early 


GRAIN  SORGHUMS  231 

maturing  and  apparently  equally  as  drouth-resistant  as  the  other 
forms,  but  its  seed  is  rather  soft  and  of  low  vitality  so  that  difficulty 
is  often  experienced  In  securing  a  good  stand. 

The  Milos  have  somewhat  finer,  juicier  stems,  are  more  leafy,  and 
stool  or  sucker  more  profusely  than  the  other  Durras.  The  heads  of 
the  Milo  may  be  either  erect  or  pendent,  with  large,  protruding  seeds. 
The  Standard  Milo  and  the  Dwarf  Milo  are  both  yellow-seed  forms, 
the  latter  being  a  selection  of  the  former,  having  been  developed  for 
its  shorter  stems,  earlier  maturity  and  greater  drouth-resistance. 
The  White  Milo  resembles  the  Standard  Milo  except  that  it  has  white 
seed  instead  of  yellow. 


Fig.  1. — With  a  good  stand  and  on  strong  land  dwarf  Milo  will  produce  abundant 
yields  of  both  grain  and  forage.    Note  the  taller  hybrids  in  the  background. 


The  Kafir  group  includes  all  the  various  varieties  of  Kafirs,  most  of 
which  produce  rather  large,  leafy,  slightly  juicy  stalks  and  are  rather 
late  maturing.  The  Kafirs  are  further  characterized  by  having  erect, 
slender,  cylindrical  heads  with  somewhat  smaller  seeds  than  the 
Durras.  Of  this  group  the  principal  variety  grown  is  the  Black  Hull 
White  Kafir,  though  within  recent  years  an  Early  Black  Hull  and 
a  Dwarf  Black  Hull  Kafir,  have  been  developed  by  selection  from 
the  former  type.  The  latter  varieties  resemble  the  former  except 
that  they  are  both  shorter  in  stature  and  earlier  maturing.  The 
other  varieties  of  Kafir,  including  the  White,  Pink  and  Red,  both 
because  of  the  poor  yield  and  late  maturing,  have  ceased  to  be  im- 
portant. 


232 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 


The  Kaoliangs  or  Chinese  sorghums  have  not  been  grown  com- 
mercially in  California  as  yet.  As  a  class  they  are  early  maturing 
and  possess  small,  dry,  leafless  stalks  and  erect,  open  heads.  It  is 
believed  that  they  require  less  heat  than  either  the  Kafirs  or  the 
Durras  and  if  this  be  true  they  might  be  of  value  at  higher  elevations 
or  in  sections  where  the  growing  season  is  too  cool  or  too  short  for  the 
latter  types.  As  but  little  is  known  regarding  their  agricultural 
value,  limited  trials  under  the  conditions  mentioned  are  recommended 
before  their  production  on  a  large  scale  is  attempted. 


",ry  ,.'■><:.;. 

■  '• '  — •  "  "  M 

Vr*"-  -?  >  ""•-'•v/rv.- 

**         ,  ■■                         i*-  ■"1V  .  v  >  i*^--»b  -       '.--    *  Wt     i*%    '•¥  is"       <a  ** : 

■  -:■--:_■         -  -      ■./.'•.,#■■■»„  ■ '.-^    -     ^  %?• •',..,^tM     m.    m\& 
>**.'♦    '         «       -v    '      T-y.     ,.'-'Jr  *  svf"  », 

*m  *«/i  Z~ 'i W4*\"' 

r-' ;    '  -t.v •-*.■/  .         rr 

Fig.  2. — Feterita  is  not  so  resistant  to  adverse  moisture  and  temperature  con- 
ditions at  the  time  of  germination  as  other  grain  sorghums,  but  when  a  good 
stand  is  secured  the  yields  are  high. 


Shallu,  more  commonly  known  as  Egyptian  wheat,  differs  from 
the  former  types  in  that  it  has  rather  large,  dry  stalks,  very  loose 
open  heads  and  small,  hard  seeds,  which,  however,  possess  a  high 
degree  of  vitality.  Because  of  the  latter  character  it  is  usually  easier 
to  secure  a  good  stand  with  Shallu  on  soils  that  are  cold  and  wet  or 
of  poor  physical  condition  than  with  any  of  the  other  varieties. 

In  order  to  secure  some  information  as  to  the  relative  value  of 
the  different  varieties  as  grain  crops,  a  variety  test  was  begun  at 
the  University  Farm  at  Davis  in  1913.      This  test  included  not  only 


GRAIN  SORGHUMS 


233 


the  more  common  varieties  but  some  of  the  more  recent  introductions 
as  well.  The  yields  obtained  during  the  years  1913  to  1916  are  given 
in  Table  I. 


TABLE  I 

Variety  Trials  with 

Grain  Sorghums 

Davis 

C.  I. 

No. 

Variety 
Durras 

1913 

Yield 
1914 

per  acre,  pounds 

1915                 1916 

Ave. 

332 

Dwarf   Milo 

2605 

4450 

5031 

2214 

3575 

234 

Standard  Milo 

1492 

3480 

4830 

2362 

3041 

White  Milo 

2860 

4693 

1974 

3176 

White  Durra 

223 

940 

2520 

378 

1015 

Brown  Durra 

2813 

3200 

5071 

1521 

3151 

182 

Feterita 

3164 

2380 

3139 

1953 

2909 

340 

Kafirs 
Dwarf  Black-Hull 

959 

2220 

3209 

1460 

1962 

472 

Early   Black-Hull 

618 

2450 

2520 

483 

1518 

185 

Black-Hull  White 

64 

2600 

1968 

463 

1274 

342 

White  Kafir 

1400 

1533 

1092 

1342 

34 

Eed  Kafir 

128 

1250 

1434 

315 

782 

Pink  Kafir 

2475 

2667 

504 

1883 

310 

Kaoliangs 
Brachets  Black-Hull 

4662 

777 

2520 

272 
170 

White  Kaoliang 
Manchu  Brown 

2000 

1071 
4436 

325 

777 

698 
2404 

171 

Brown 

3700 

4284 

903 

2962 

Shallu 

4200 

4609 

1816 

3542 

In  studying  the  data  given  in  the  table  it  will  be  noted  that  there 
is  considerable  difference  between  the  yields  of  any  single  variety 
for  the  different  seasons.  The  relatively  low  yield  of  all  varieties 
in  1913  was  due  to  drouth,  the  total  precipitation  being  less  than 
nine  inches.  In  1916  the  yields  were  also  rather  low.  This,  however, 
was  due  primarily  to  the  poor  stand  obtained  in  most  cases.  In  the 
absence  of  spring  rains  the  soil  became  very  dry  before  planting  time, 
rendering  the  preparation  of  a  good  seed  bed  almost  impossible. 
The  conditions  during  the  two  seasons  1914  and  1915,  on  the  other 
hand,  were  good  and  the  results  obtained  were  excellent. 

Considering  the  average  yield  of  the  varieties  by  groups,  it  will 
be  noted  that  of  the  Durras  the  highest  yield  was  produced  by  Dwarf 
Milo,  with  3575  pounds  per  acre,  followed  by  White  Milo,  Brown 
Durra  and  Standard  Milo,  respectively.  Attention  is  called  to  the 
fact,  however,  that  the  White  Milo  was  not  grown  during  the  dry 


234 


UNIVERSITY  OF   CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 


season  of  1913,  but  was  grown  only  during  the  three  most  favorable 
seasons,  and  that  the  yield  during  these  three  seasons  was  lower  than 
the  yield  of  either  Brown  Durra  or  Standard  Milo. 

The  lower  yield  of  Peterita  as  compared  with  the  former  varieties 
is  unquestionably  due,  in  nearly  all  cases,  to  a  poor  stand.  Never- 
theless this  factor  is  an  important  one  when  considering  the  relative 
merits  of  the  different  varieties.  The  low  yield  of  the  White  Durra 
may  be  accounted  for  by  losses  through  shattering  and  by  attacks  of 


Fig.  3. — A  plot  of  Dwarf  Milo  from  selected  heads. 

heads. 


Note  the  large  well-developed 


birds,  60  to  80  per  cent  of  the  grain  usually  being  destroyed  before  it 
is  mature. 

Of  the  Kafirs  the  Dwarf  Black-Hull  Kafir  gave  the  largest  average 
yield,  followed  by  Pink  Kafir,  Early  Black-Hull,  and  Black-Hull 
White,  respectively.  The  Dwarf  and  the  Early  Black-Hull  are  both 
more  dwarfed  in  stature  and  earlier  maturing  than  the  Black-Hull 
White,  and  as  grain  crops  are  apparently  better  adapted  to  the  con- 
ditions at  Davis  than  the  last  named  variety.  The  yield  of  the  Pink 
Kafir  has  been  fair,  but  it  is  very  late  in  maturing  and  its  seeds  are 
rather  dark  and  astringent,  making  it  an  undesirable  variety  to  grow. 
The  same  in  general  may  be  said  of  the  Red  Kafir.  The  White  Kafir, 
on  the  other  hand,  is  a  small,  early  maturing  variety,  but  has  little 
in  its  favor  as  a  grain  crop. 


GRAIN  SORGHUMS 


235 


Of  the  Kaoliang  group  the  best  results  have  been  obtained  from 
Brown  Kaoliang,  though  it  must  be  stated  that  in  manner  and  habit 
of  growth,  this  variety  and  the  Manchu  Brown  appear  to  be  identical. 
Brachets  Black-Hull  Kaoliang,  a  rather  dwarf,  leafy  variety,  has 
given  fair  yields  of  grain  during  the  two  years  it  has  been  in  the 
experiments.  White  Kaoliang,  a  very  tall,  though  early  maturing 
variety,  is  always  attacked  by  birds,  which  accounts  for  its  low  yield. 

The  yield  obtained  from  Shallu,  it  will  be  noted,  is  exceeded  only 
by  Dwarf  Milo.  Tins  variety,  however,  was  grown  only  during  the 
last  three  years,  giving  it  the  advantage  of  the  more  favorable  seasons. 


Fig.  4. — Brown  Kaoliang  on  the  left,  Dwarf  Milo  in  the  center,  and  White  Kao- 
liang on  the  right. 

It  may  be  said,  however,  that  the  yield  from  Shallu  is  nearly  always 
good  and  especially  so  when  the  supply  of  moisture  is  abundant.  It 
is,  however,  later  maturing  and  its  seeds  are  small  and  hard,  making 
them  less  desirable  for  feed  than  most  of  the  other  sorghums. 

Considering  the  results  as  a  whole  the  Durras  have  given  higher 
yields  than  the  varieties  of  any  of  the  other  groups,  while  the  Dwarf 
Milo  has  been  the  most  promising  variety  of  the  lot,  and  is  without 
question  the  best  variety  for  most  conditions  when  a  maximum  yield 
of  grain  is  desired.  Regarding  the  other  Durras,  their  relative  worth 
will  be  determined  by  specific  conditions  and  by  the  purpose  for 
which  they  are  to  be  grown.     The  yields  of  the  Kafirs,  on  the  whole 


236  UNIVERSITY  OF   CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 

have  been  low,  and  it  is  questionable  if  they  can  be  recommended  for 
general  use  in  this  state  except  where  grain  and  forage  both  are 
desired,  and  where  the  growing  season  is  long. 

A  test  including  a  few  of  the  Durras  and  Kafirs  was  also  con- 
ducted at  the  Kearney  Park  Station  in  1913.  In  this  test  all  the 
varieties  were  so  badly  injured  by  birds  that  the  results  were  mater- 
ially affected.  An  attempt  was  made  to  estimate  the  approximate 
percentage  of  injury  in  each  case,  which,  together  with  the  yields 
obtained,  is  given  in  Table  II. 

TABLE  II 

Variety  Trials  with  Grain  Sorghums 
Kearney  Park,  1913 

Per  cent  Yield 

destroyed  per  acre, 

Variety  by  birds  pounds 

Dwarf  Milo  50  1739* 

Standard   Milo    60  1731* 

White  Durra  75  177f 

Brown  Durra  55  1817f 

Feterita    40  1833 

Dwarf   Black-Hull   Kafir 60  924 

Early  Black-Hull  Kafir 60  770 

Black-Hull  White  Kafir 50  429f 

*  Average  of  three  plots. 
f  Average  of  two  plots. 

The  results  here  obtained  were  practically  the  same  as  the  averages 
of  the  four  years  at  Davis.  While  Feterita  gave  a  slightly  higher 
yield  than  the  Milos  and  Brown  Durra,  only  one  plot  of  the  variety 
was  grown,  and  it  may  be  stated  that  the  Dwarf  Milo  plot  adjacent 
to  the  Feterita  plot  yielded  2285  pounds  per  acre  or  450  pounds  more 
than  the  Feterita.  Furthermore  the  Feterita  was  not  so  much  dam- 
aged by  the  birds  as  were  the  other  varieties. 

All  the  Kafirs  gave  low  yields  but  the  order  of  their  importance 
as  indicated  by  yield  was  the  same  at  Kearney  Park  as  at  Davis. 

CULTURE 

Inasmuch  as  the  grain  sorghums  are  summer-grown  crops,  making 
their  growth  during  the  dry  season  of  the  year,  too  much  emphasis 
cannot  be  placed  upon  the  preparation  of  the  seed  bed  and  the  care 
of  the  crop  during  the  growing  season.  Especially  is  this  important 
since  the  grain  sorghums  will,  in  most  cases,  be  grown  as  a  dry-land 
crop.  We  should  not  lose  sight  of  the  fact  that  although  they  are  as  a 
class  drouth  resistant,  the  yields  which  will  be  obtained  will  usually 


GRAIN  SORGHUMS  237 

be  in  direct  proportion  to  the  condition  of  the  soil  and  the  amount 
of  moisture  available.  It  is  therefore  desirable  to  handle  the  soil  so 
that  a  good  seed  bed  can  be  prepared  and  as  much  of  the  precipitation 
conserved  as  possible. 

Preparation  of  the  Seed  Bed. — When  possible  the  land  should  be 
plowed  in  the  fall  or  early  winter  to  a  depth  of  eight  or  ten  inches 
and  allowed  to  lie  in  the  rough  until  spring.  In  this  condition  the 
soil  will  absorb  a  large  proportion  of  the  winter  rainfall  and  will  also 
be  materially  benefited  by  weathering  action.  Unless  the  field  is  very 
weedy  no  further  treatment  will  be  necessary  until  it  is  to  be  pre- 
pared for  seeding,  at  which  time  the  seed  bed  can  usually  be  prepared 
with  a  disc  and  harrow.  If  for  any  reason  spring  plowing  becomes 
necessary  it  should  always  be  more  shallow  than  fall  plowing,  other- 
wise too  much  moisture  will  be  lost  by  evaporation  and  difficulty  will 
be  experienced  in  working  the  land  down  properly  for  seeding.  In 
fact,  except  on  the  most  favorable  soil  more  work  is  always  required 
to  prepare  a  good  seed  bed  on  spring-plowed  than  on  fall-plowed  land. 

The  seed  bed  should  be  smooth  and  even,  with  a  mulch  of  two  to 
three  inches  on  the  surface,  while  the  soil  below  the  mulch  should  be 
firm  and  moist.  This  condition  is  imperative  as  the  seed  of  most  of 
the  grain  sorghums  is  rather  soft  and  rots  easily  if  the  soil  is  too  cold 
or  porous  or  the  moisture  supply  insufficient  for  prompt  germination. 
As  has  formerly  been  stated,  such  a  seed  bed  can  in  most  cases  be 
prepared  on  fall-plowed  land  without  difficulty  with  the  ordinal 
implements  found  on  the  farm.  Spring-plowed  ]and,  however,  may 
require  more  work  in  order  to  pack  the  subsoil  sufficiently  and  to 
pulverize  the  surface  properly. 

Time  of  Seeding. — The  time  to  plant  the  grain  sorghums  will  vary 
to  some  extent  with  the  location  and  with  the  character  of  the  soil. 
Planting  should  not  be  done  until  the  soil  and  atmosphere  are  quite 
warm.  In  the  valleys  in  the  southern  portion  of  the  state  where  the 
warm  weather  begins  earlier  in  the  spring  the  crop  may  be  planted 
earlier  than  in  the  north.  Again,  light,  sandy  soil  warms  up  more 
quickly  than  heavy  soil  and  can  usualty  be  planted  a  week  to  ten  days 
earlier  than  the  latter  type.  Results  obtained  at  Davis  indicate  that 
in  that  section  at  least,  the  best  time  to  plant  is  from  the  10th  to 
the  20th  of  April.  If  planted  earlier  the  atmosphere  and  soil  are 
too  cold  for  the  best  growth.  On  the  other  hand,  if  planting  is  de- 
layed until  after  the  first  of  May  the  soil  is  apt  to  become  too  dry 
for  prompt  germination  unless  irrigation  can  be  provided.  On  irri- 
gated land  seeding  may  be  delayed  until  the  middle  or  latter  part  of 
June,  though  the  total  yield  will  seldom  be  as  great  as  when  planting 


238  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 

is  done  earlier.  In  some  places,  however,  this  fact  is  made  use  of  by 
employing  the  grain  sorghums  as  a  second  crop  to  follow  grain,  grain- 
hay,  or  other  similar  spring  crops. 

Method  and  Kate  of  Seeding. — The  most  common  method  of  plant- 
ing the  grain  sorghums  is  to  use  a  corn  planter  fitted  with  sorghum 
seed  plates.  With  this  implement  the  seed  is  drilled  in  rows  three 
to  three  and  one-half  feet  apart,  spacing  the  seed  from  four  to  six 
inches  apart  in  the  row.  In  some  cases  the  grain  drill  has  been  used 
for  planting  the  crop  by  stopping  up  enough  of  the  holes  to  give  the 
proper  spacing  between  rows.  This  implement,  however,  is  not  to 
be  recommended  as  it  seeds  too  shallow  and  too  heavily  for  any  but 
the  most  favorable  conditions. 

The  distance  commonty  allowed  between  the  rows  is  three  and 
one-half  feet,  since  this  distance  provides  ample  room  for  the  develop- 
ment of  the  plants  and  for  cultivation. 

The  distance  between  the  plants  in  the  rows  will  be  governed  by 
the  character  of  the  soil  and  the  supply  of  moisture,  and  also  by  the 
variety  employed.  On  fertile  loam  soils  abundantly  supplied  with 
moisture,  the  heavier  rates  of  seeding  may  be  employed,  while  on 
sandy  soils  with  a  limited  supply  of  moisture  it  is  often  advisable  to 
allow  a  distance  of  even  ten  to  twelve  inches  between  the  plants  in 
the  rows.  Again  such  short  varieties  as  Dwarf  Milo  and  others  of 
the  Durras  can  ordinarily  be  seeded  heavier  than  such  large  leafy 
types  as  the  Kafirs,  since  the  individual  plants  do  not  require  as  much 
moisture  or  as  much  space  for  development  as  do  the  plants  of  the 
latter  type.  In  the  case  of  the  Milos  especially,  it  is  usually  advisable 
to  seed  as  heavily  as  conditions  will  permit,  otherwise  the  plants  stool 
profusely,  causing  uneven  development  of  the  heads  as  well  as  uneven 
ripening.  All  of  the  Durras  and  some  of  the  Kafirs,  if  provided  with 
ample  room,  will  stool  to  some  extent,  but  none  of  them  stool  as 
prolifically  as  the  Milo. 

The  amount  of  seed  ordinarily  required  per  acre  will  be  from  two 
to  six  pounds.  When  planting  the  sorghum  crop  care  should  be 
exercised  to  see  that  the  seed  is  placed  below  the  surface  mulch  in 
contact  with  moist  soil  where  it  may  quickly  absorb  the  water  needed 
for  germination.  This  will  usually  be  at  a  depth  of  from  two  to  three 
inches.  If  the  seed  bed  is  rough  and  open,  however,  as  is  often  the 
case  on  spring-plowed  land,  deeper  planting  may  be  advisable,  though 
the  maximum  depth  on  ordinary  soil  is  probably  about  four  inches. 
If  planted  too  shallow,  the  seed  will  be  placed  in  the  dry  mulch,  where 
germination  will  be  delayed,  which  will  often  result  in  a  poor,  uneven 
stand. 


GRAIN  SORGHUMS  239 

When  the  surface  of  the  soil  is  rough  and  open  or  the  layer  of 
dry  soil  so  deep  that  it  is  difficult  to  get  the  seed  down  to  moisture, 
good  results  have  often  been  obtained  by  attaching  shovel  furrow 
openers  on  the  shoes  of  the  planter.  These  shovels  provide  small 
furrows  by  pushing  the  clods  and  dry  soil  aside,  thus  making  it 
much  easier  to  get  the  seed  down  to  the  moist  soil  below.  This  pro- 
vides a  condition  much  the  same  as  that  obtained  by  listing,  except 
that  the  furrows  are  smaller  and  much  shallower,  being  no  deeper 
than  necessary  to  get  the  seed  below  the  mulch. 

Listing  sorghums  has  not  been  practiced  to  any  great  extent  in 
this  state,  though  it  probably  could  be  employed  to  advantage  espe- 
cially on  light  soil  or  for  late  planting.  When  planted  with  a  lister 
the  seed  is  planted  in  the  bottom  of  a  furrow  several  inches  below 
the  normal  level  of  the  ground.  This  furrow  is  allowed  to  remain 
open  until  the  plants  attain  some  size,  when  it  is  gradually  filled  in 
by  the  successive  cultivations.  When  planted  by  this  method  the 
main  roots  of  the  plants  are  forced  to  develop  several  inches  below 
the  surface  of  the  soil,  making  it  possible  to  maintain  a  deeper  mulch 
without  injuring  the  roots. 

On  soils  that  are  heavy  or  wet,  however,  listing  may  be  a  dis- 
advantage since  the  soil  in  which  the  seed  is  planted  may  be  too 
cold  for  rapid  germination,  or  the  bottom  of  the  furrow  may  bake  so 
hard  that  the  young  plants  will  be  unable  to  force  their  way  through. 

Care  of  the  Crop. — The  attention  necessary  after  the  crop  has 
been  planted  will  depend  wholly  upon  the  condition  of  the  field  and 
the  season.  The  sorghums  grow  rather  slowly  at  first,  and  it  often 
happens  that  the  field  becomes  foul  with  weeds  before  the  plants  are 
large  enough  to  permit  regular  cultivation.  When  this  occurs  the 
weed  growth  may  be  destroyed  by  the  use  of  a  harrow  without  severe 
injury  to  the  crop,  provided  the  teeth  are  set  at  an  angle  of  forty- 
five  degrees.  Again,  if  the  soil  becomes  crusted  due  to  rains,  as 
frequently  occurs  on  heavy  soils,  the  crust  must  be  broken  as  the 
young  seedlings  are  often  too  weak  to  push  their  way  through.  If 
the  crust  is  not  too  thick  it  may  be  broken  with  a  harrow,  though  it  is 
usually  better  to  use  a  corrugated  or  dunham  roller,  as  this  implement 
breaks  the  crust  without  injury  to  the  plants.  In  general  it  may  be 
said,  however,  that  either  the  harrow  or  the  roller  can  be  employed 
with  safety  until  the  plants  attain  a  height  of  four  or  five  inches. 

As  soon  as  the  plants  are  large  enough  so  that  the  rows  can  be 
plainly  seen  the  field  should  be  cultivated,  using  an  ordinary  two- 
horse  corn  cultivator.  This  cultivation  should  be  at  least  four  inches 
in  depth  as  the  main  object  beside  the  destruction  of  weeds  is  the 


240  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 

establishing  of  a  deep  mulch.  For  this  purpose  an  implement  with 
rather  small  shovels  is  to  be  preferred  since  it  pulverizes  the  soil 
more  thoroughly  and  leaves  the  surface  relatively  smooth  and  even. 
Two  or  three  similar  cultivations  should  be  given  at  intervals  of  from 
two  to  three  weeks  or  until  the  plants  attain  a  height  of  about  three 
feet,  after  which  no  further  cultivation  will  be  necessary.  Normally 
the  crop  will  continue  growth  and  mature  without  further  attention. 

Irrigation. — While  the  larger  proportion  of  the  grain  sorghum 
crop  will  probably  be  grown  without  irrigation,  occasions  may  arise 
under  which  irrigation  may  be  advisable.  Especially  is  this  true 
when  the  sorghum  is  to  be  grown  as  a  second  crop  following  grain-hay 
or  some  similar  spring  crop.  In  such  cases  it  will  nearly  always  be 
necessary  to  irrigate  the  land  before  seeding. 

The  time  of  irrigating  and  the  number  of  irrigations  after  the 
crop  has  been  planted  will  depend  wholly  upon  local  conditions. 
Water  should  be  applied  when  the  plants  appear  to  be  affected  by 
drouth.  Except  when  the  natural  precipitation  is  very  low  one 
irrigation  will  usually  be  sufficient,  this  being  applied  when  the 
plants  start  to  head. 

For  irrigating  the  sorghums  the  furrow  method  may  be  employed, 
but  if  the  land  has  previously  been  leveled  and  checked  flooding  is 
usually  preferred  because  of  the  smaller  amount  of  labor  involved. 
After  irrigation  the  field  should  be  cultivated  as  soon  as  the  soil  is 
dry  enough  to  work  properly. 

HARVESTING  THE  GRAIN  CROP 

The  time  of  ripening  will  depend  not  only  upon  the  time  of  plant- 
ing, but  also  upon  the  location,  and  the  season,  as  well  as  the  variety. 
Where  the  average  daily  temperature  is  high  the  crop  will  mature 
much  more  quickly  than  where  it  is  low  or  in  sections  having  cool 
nights.  For  example,  in  the  Imperial  Valley  or  in  the  southern  part 
of  the  San  Joaquin  Valley,  Dwarf  Milo  will  often  mature  in  100  to 
115  days  after  the  plants  are  up,  whereas  at  Davis,  where  the  nights 
are  relatively  cool,  125  to  140  days  are  normally  required.  A  similar 
variation  in  the  time  of  maturity  has  been  noted  with  the  varieties 
requiring  a  longer  season. 

The  grain  crop  should  not  be  harvested  until  the  majority  of  the 
heads  are  fully  mature,  since  immature  seed  is  apt  to  heat  in  storage, 
causing  a  considerable  loss.  The  common  means  of  harvesting  this 
crop  is  to  cut  the  heads  by  hand,  throwing  them  into  a  wagon  and 
hauling  to  the  curing  beds.  By  this  method  one  man  with  a  team 
can  harvest  from  three-fourths  of  an  acre  to  one  acre  per  day,  de- 


GRAIN  SORGHUMS 


241 


pending  upon  the  character  of  the  field.  Dwarf  varieties  with  rather 
erect  heads  are  sometimes  harvested  with  a  grain  header.  It  is  neces- 
sary, however,  to  modify  the  implement  somewhat  by  raising  the 
cutting  device  in  order  not  to  cut  too  much  of  the  stalk.  At  best,  some 
heads  will  be  left  in  the  field  which  must  either  be  gathered  by  hand  or 
pastured  off  by  livestock.  The  corn  binder  is  also  employed  to  a  slight 
extent,  the  stalks  being  cured  in  the  field  and  later  hauled  to  the 
barnyard  and  either  headed  or  fed  directly  to  livestock.  Heading 
from  the  stack  or  shock,  however,  is  much  slower  than  heading  from 
the  standing  crop.  If  the  stalks  are  bound  in  bundles,  however,  they 
may  be  headed  rather  rapidly  by  laying  the  bundle  on  a  block  and 
cutting  off  the  heads  with  a  broadaxe  or  corn  knife. 


Fig.  5. — Harvesting  Dwarf  Milo   at  the  University  Farm. 


After  the  heads  are  harvested  they  must  be  thoroughly  cured.  In 
sections  where  the  conditions  for  drying  are  good  the  heads  are 
usually  placed  in  piles  or  ricks  five  to  six  feet  in  height,  where  they 
are  allowed  to  remain  for  ten  days,  two  weeks,  or  longer  if  necessary, 
until  they  are  thoroughly  dry.  In  sections  where  the  conditions  for 
drying  are  less  favorable  smaller  piles  must  be  used,  otherwise  the 
grains  may  spoil  on  the  head.  A  method  employed  at  the  University 
Farm  with  good  success  is  to  spread  straw  on  the  ground  to  a  depth 
of  six  to  eight  inches  and  then  to  spread  the  heads  on  the  straw  to  a 
depth  of  a  foot  or  eighteen  inches,  in  which  condition  curing  will  take 
place  rather  quickly.  When  taken  from  the  curing  bed  the  straw 
is  run  through  the  thresher  with  the  grains,  thus  preventing  the  usual 
loss  due  to  shattering. 


242 


UNIVERSITY  OF   CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 


For  threshing  the  grain  sorghums,  the  ordinary  grain  thresher 
may  be  used  if  modified  slightly.  Most  manufacturers  of  threshing 
machines  supply  special  riddles  to  be  used,  which  greatly  facilitate 
the  cleaning  of  the  grains.  The  same  riddles  and  sieves  as  are  used 
for  barley  may  be  employed,  though  their  use  usuall}^  makes  it  neces- 
sary to  reclean  the  seed  after  threshing.  Another  modification  neces- 
sarv  is  a  removal  of  some  of  the  concaves  and  a  reduction  in  the 


Fig.  6. — Threshing  Milo  at  the  University  Farm. 


speed  of  the  cylinder,  in  order  to  prevent  the  cracking  of  a  large 
percentage  of  the  grains. 

The  grain  is  usually  stored  in  bags  rather  than  in  bulk,  since  by 
this  method  it  is  easier  to  keep  it  from  heating.  Storing  in  bulk,  how- 
ever, may  be  practiced  if  it  is  kept  perfectly  dry  and  very  large 
quantities  are  not  placed  in  one  bin.  Because  of  the  rather  soft 
character  of  the  seed,  however,  it  absorbs  moisture  easily  and  will 
quickly  spoil  if  not  properly  cared  for.  Even  when  placed  in  bags, 
the  bags  should  be  stored  in  as  dry  a  place  as  possible,  with  ample 
circulation  of  air  provided  to  keep  it  dry. 


GRAIN  SORGHUMS  243 


GEAIN  SORGHUMS  AS  FORAGE   CROPS 

The  grain  sorghums  have  not  as  yet  been  used  extensively  for 
forage,  though  it  has  been  shown  that  when  employed  as  stover, 
fodder  or  silage  they  compare  favorably  with  corn.  The  choice  of 
varieties  for  this  purpose  will  naturally  differ  somewhat  from  the 
selection  for  grain  alone.  In  general,  the  varieties  which  produce  the 
largest  vegetative  growth  and  are  the  most  palatable  should  be  em- 
ployed. In  many  respects  the  Kafirs  are  to  be  preferred  since  they 
not  only  produce  a  high  tonnage  but  their  stalks  are  leafy,  somewhat 
juicy  and  quite  palatable.  The  Milos  are  also  excellent  for  this 
purpose,  being  apparently  equally  palatable  to  the  Kafirs,  though 
the  tonnage  which  they  will  produce  will  ordinarily  be  less.  Such 
varieties  as  White  and  Brown  Durras  or  Shallu,  because  of  their  dry, 
pithy  stalks,  and  lack  of  leaves,  yield  a  low  tonnage  of  forage  of  very 
poor  quality. 

Unfortunately  no  extensive  tests  have  been  conducted  to  deter- 
mine the  relative  forage  yields  of  the  different  varieties.  During  the 
seasons  1914  and  1915,  however,  the  total  green  weight  produced  in 
the  different  cases  on  the  Agronomy  plots  was  determined  by  harvest- 
ing the  whole  plot  as  soon  as  the  grain  was  mature  and  before  the 
leaves  had  withered.  The  average  yields  of  both  grain  and  stalk,  in 
tons  per  acre  for  the  two  years,  of  the  varieties  most  suitable  for 
forage  purposes,  were  as  follows : 

Tons 
per  acre 

Dwarf  Milo  9.80 

Standard  Milo  9.93 

White  Milo  10.58 

Feterita  7.01 

Dwarf    Black-Hull    Kafir 12.35 

Early   Black-Hull    Kafir 14.67 

Black-Hull   White   Kafir 16.06 

The  cultural  methods  to  employ  when  the  crop  is  grown  for  forage 
are  in  most  cases  the  same  as  those  used  for  grain  production.  "When 
the  moisture  supply  is  abundant  it  may  be  permissible,  in  most  cases, 
to  seed  a  little  more  heavily  as  by  so  doing  the  yield,  as  well  as  the 
quality  of  the  forage,  will  be  improved. 

The  proper  time  for  harvesting  will  vary  a  little,  depending  upon 
the  manner  in  which  the  forage  is  to  be  used;  but  since  the  stems 
and  leaves  of  most  of  the  grain  sorghums  remain  green  until  after 
the  seed  is  ripe,  it  is  usually  better  to  allow  the  seed  to  become  mature 
before  harvesting.     If  sorghums   are  to  be  used   for  silage   this   is 


244  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 

absolutely  necessary  in  order  to  make  the  best  quality  of  silage.  If 
the  product  is  to  be  fed  as  fodder  the  crop  can  be  harvested  when  the 
seed  is  in  the  hard  dough  stage. 

The  sorghum  forage  crop  may  be  harvested  in  exactly  the  same 
manner  as  corn.  When  the  acreage  is  small,  harvesting  by  hand  or 
with  a  sled  cutter  will  probably  be  most  economical,  but  where  large 
areas  are  to  be  handled  it  will  usually  pay  to  secure  a  corn  binder 
which  ties  the  plants  into  bundles,  making  them  much  easier  to 
handle. 

If  the  crop  is  to  be  used  for  silage  it  should  be  put  into  the  silo 
as  soon  after  cutting  as  possible,  but  if  it  is  to  be  used  as  fodder  the 
stalks  or  bundles  should  be  put  into  shocks  in  the  field  and  allowed 
to  cure  thoroughly,  after  which  they  may  either  be  stacked  or  hauled 
directly  to  the  feed  rack. 

GEAIN  SORGHUMS  IN  THE  ROTATION 

The  use  of  the  grain  sorghums  in  the  rotation  has  been  a  rather 
perplexing  problem  since  they  have  the  unsavory  reputation  of  being 
"hard  on  the  land.'  Just  why  this  crop  is  hard  on  the  land  is  not 
definitely  known,  but  it  is  true  that  if  such  a  rapid  growing  crop  as 
barley  is  seeded  on  the  land  immediately  following  grain  sorghums 
the  yield  will  not  be  as  good  as  if  preceded  by  some  other  crop. 
It  is  probable  that  the  sorghum,  the  root  system  of  which  is  bunched 
near  the  surface,  draws  heavily  on  the  available  plant  food  and  moist- 
ure, thus  lessening  the  supply  for  the  crop  immediately  following, 
especially  if  that  crop  is  one  which  demands  these  constituents  in 
relatively  large  quantities.  It  is  evident  that  as  compared  with  corn 
the  grain  sorghum  leaves  the  soil  in  poor  physical  condition.  Tests 
at  the  University  Farm  have  shown,  however,  that  if  a  couple  of 
months  elapse  between  the  time  the  sorghum  crop  is  removed  and  the 
seeding  of  the  barley,  the  detrimental  effect  will  be  greatly  lessened. 
When  such  a  system  is  to  be  followed  it  is  advisable  to  plow  up  the 
sorghum  stubble  as  soon  as  the  crop  has  been  removed  as  areation 
will  then  be  more  thorough  and  the  injurious  effect  more  readily  over- 
come. Wheat  and  oats  are  not  affected  as  much  as  barley,  while  inter- 
tilled crops  seem  to  be  affected  even  less. 

Another  problem  that  will  arise  is  the  proper  disposition  of  the 
stalks  when  they  cannot  be  used  for  feed.  While  definite  information 
is  lacking  as  to  the  best  means  to  dispose  of  them,  it  will  probably 
be  best  to  cut  and  remove  them  from  the  field,  especially  in  sections 
where  the  moisture  supply  is  low.  While  the  writer  is  aware  that 
this  is  contrary  to  the  best   agricultural  teaching,   yet  it  has  been 


GRAIN  SORGHUMS  245 

found  that  with  a  low  rainfall  the  soil  moisture  will  be  insufficient  to 
rot  so  large  a  quantity  of  material  and  trouble  will  follow.  Even 
when  the  stalks  are  removed,  difficulty  will  sometimes  be  experienced 
in  disposing  of  the  stubble  and  roots.  By  using  a  fourteen  or  sixteen- 
inch  mouldboard  plow,  however,  the  stubble  may  be  turned  under 
with  a  fair  degree  of  success,  but  the  ten  or  twelve-inch  plows  com- 
monly found  on  California  farms  are  too  small  to  perform  the  job  in 
a  satisfactory  manner.  If  the  plowing  is  done  in  the  fall  or  early 
winter,  the  large  crowns  will  ordinarily  be  sufficiently  disintegrated 
by  spring  so  that  they  will  not  cause  trouble  when  preparing  for  most 
spring  crops.  Sorghum,  however,  is  not  a  good  crop  to  precede  alfalfa 
as  even  under  the  most  favorable  conditions  the  roots  and  stubble 
are  apt  to  prove  troublesome  in  leveling  and  checking  the  land  as 
well  as  in  seeding  the  alfalfa. 

The  grain  sorghums  may  apparently  follow  almost  any  other  crop 
with  fair  success,  though  it  is  not  advisable  to  grow  this  crop  on  the 
same  land  year  after  year  without  the  use  of  some  other  crop  in  the 
rotation.  A  system  which  is  finding  some  favor  where  irrigation  is 
available  is  to  utilize  the  grain  sorghum  as  a  second  crop  following 
grain  hay.  The  hay  crop  is  removed  in  May  or  early  June  and  the 
land  irrigated  and  plowed  and  planted  to  sorghum.  For  this  purpose 
an  early  maturing  variety  such  as  Milo,  White  Durra,  or  Feterita 
should  be  employed  to  avoid  the  possible  danger  of  the  crop  being 
injured  by  frost  before  maturity.  Even  these  vareties  can  not  be 
planted  later  than  the  20th  of  June  without  incurring  the  possible 
danger  of  injury  by  frost  before  maturity  takes  place  in  most  sections 
of  the  state. 

SEED  SELECTION  AND  IMPROVEMENT 

As  yet  but  little  effort  has  been  made  to  improve  the  grain  sor- 
ghums, though  from  the  small  amount  of  work  that  has  been  done  it 
is  apparent  that  a  great  deal  of  progress  can  be  made  in  this  direc- 
tion. By  intelligent  selection  the  yield  of  grain  and  forage  may  be 
greatly  increased,  as  may  also  the  earliness  of  maturity  and  drouth 
resistance.  With  such  varieties  as  the  Milos,  which  normally  have 
rather  pendent  heads,  it  is  possible,  through  careful  selection,  to 
develop  in  a  very  short  time  a  strain  with  perfect  heads.  Many  other 
similar  lines  of  improvement  will  naturally  suggest  themselves,  but 
the  growers  should  bear  in  mind  that  it  is  much  more  difficult  to  fix 
several  characters  than  one  or  two,  for  which  reason  only  such  char- 
acters should  form  the  basis  of  selection  as  will  be  of  value  under  his 
particular  conditions. 


246  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 

While  the  majority  of  growers  may  not  care  to  attempt  improve- 
ment of  the  crop  as  above  suggested,  all  are  strongly  urged  to  main- 
tain seed  plots,  especially  if  they  desire  to  grow  the  crop  year  after 
year.  This  is  especially  desirable  as  the  seed  on  the  market  is  often 
badly  mixed  with  other  varieties  as  well  as  badly  hybridized  with 
these  varieties. 

Inasmuch  as  all  varieties  of  sorghums  cross  rather  readily  the 
seed  plot  should  be  maintained  in  an  isolated  part  of  the  field  where 
it  will  not  be  crossed  by  other  varieties.  The  seed  for  this  plot  should 
be  from  heads  or  plants  of  a  uniform  type,  for  by  careful  selection  of 
the  few  heads  necessary  to  plant  the  seed  plot,  the  grower  is  able  not 
only  to  purify  his  strain,  but  to  increase  the  yield  and  quality  of  his 
product  as  well. 

VALUE  AS  FEED 

Relatively  little  information  is  available  concerning  the  feeding 
value  of  the  grain  sorghums,  especially  as  compared  with  the  other 
cereals,  but  such  tests  as  have  been  conducted  indicate  that  when  fed 
either  as  grain  or  in  the  form  of  fodder  or  silage  they  compare  favor- 
ably with  corn.  It  should  be  remembered,  however,  that  the  grain 
of  the  sorghums,  like  that  of  the  other  cereals,  is  not  in  itself  a 
balanced  ration,  and  will,  therefore,  give  the  best  results  only  when 
fed  in  conjunction  with  some  more  concentrated  feed. 

In  order  to  determine  the  relative  composition  of  the  different 
varieties  analyses  were  made  on  the  grain  of  the  1914  crop,  the 
results  of  which,  together  with  the  analysis  of  corn  and  barley,  are 
given  in  table  III. 

Comparing  the  average  composition  of  all  the  grain  sorghums  with 
corn  and  barley  it  will  be  noted  that  they  are  but  slightly  lower  in 
protein,  fat,  and  crude  fiber  than  corn,  but  higher  in  carbohydrates 
and  ash.  Barley  is  somewhat  higher  in  protein,  crude  fiber  and  ash, 
but  considerably  lower  in  fat  and  carbohydrates. 

A  rather  wide  variation  in  the  composition  of  the  different  varie- 
ties was  obtained,  but  attention  is  called  to  the  fact  that  the  data 
given  in  the  table  represent  but  one  analysis  of  each  variety,  and 
perhaps,  therefore  does  not  give  an  accurate  comparison  under  all 
conditions. 

As  a  grain  feed,  it  is  pretty  well  understood  that  there  is  some 
difference  in  value  between  the  different  types  and  varieties  not  shown 
in  the  composition.  The  Brown  Durra  and  the  Kafirs,  for  instance, 
are  prone  to  have  a  constipating  effect  on  the  digestive  system  of 
animals  unless  fed  with  a  laxative  feed  such  as  oilmeal  or  alfalfa. 


GRAIN  SORGHUMS  247 

TABLE  III 


Composition  of  Grain  Sorghums* 
1914  Crop 

Per  cent 
_/ 


Crude 
Variety  Water  Protein  Fat  fiber 

Durras 

Dwarf  Milo  10.05  8.99  3.35  1.91 

White   Milo   11.75  8.31  2.85  1.73 

White  Durra  11.00  10.58  3.62  1.30 

Brown  Durra  11.30  10.75  3.18  1.60 

Feterita    11.35  9.49  2.12  1.33 

Average    all    Durras 11.09  9.62  3.02  1.58 

Kafirs 

Dwarf   Black-Hull   Kafir....  11.82  9.66  3.90  2.13 

Eed    Kafir    12.75  9.49  3.10  1.68 

Pink  Kaffir 12.74  9.32  3.28  2.37 

Average   all   Kafirs 12.44  9.49  3.43  2.06 

Kaoliangs 

White  Kaoliang   10.82  11.68  3.90  2.45 

Manchu  Brown  Kaoliang..  9.78  9.32  3.71  1.33 

Brown    Kaoliang    10.19  10.25  3.36  1.75 

Brachets  Black-Hull  Kao- 
liang      12.35  9.66  3.20  2.41 

Average    all    Kaoliangs 10.78  10.23  3.54  1.98 

Shallu    12.85  9.28  3.93  1.63 

Average    all   sorghums 11.44  9.76  3.34  1.76 

Corn2  10.60  10.30  5.00  2.20 

Barley3    10.90  12.40  1.80  2.70 

i  Analyses  of  sorghums  made  by  Professor  M.  E.  Jaffa. 

2  and  s  Taken  from  Jordan 's  ' '  Feeding  of  Farm  Animals. ' } 

With  the  White  Durra  and  the  Milos,  however,  no  effect  of  this  char- 
acter has  been  noted,  a  fact  which  renders  them  especially  desirable 
as  calf  or  poultry  feeds.  When  the  sorghums  are  used  as  grain  feed 
much  better  results  will  usually  be  obtained  if  the  seed  is  ground  or 
crushed  than  if  fed  whole.  When  fed  to  livestock  good  results  are 
also  obtained  by  grinding  or  crushing  the  whole  heads.  The  feed  thus 
obtained  compares  favorably  with  corn  and  cob  meal. 

For  fodder  or  silage  purposes  the  value  as  a  feed  is  governed  to 
some  extent  by  the  variety  and  by  the  time  of  harvesting.  However, 
where  properly  handled  the  fodder  or  silage  from  the  Kafirs  or  Milos 
is  but  slightly  inferior  to  corn.  Much  still  remains  to  be  learned,  not 
only  with  regard  to  the  value  of  the  sorghums  as  feed,  but  also  with 
regard  to  the  most  economical  means  of  feeding  them.  When  these 
problems  have  been  more  fully  worked  out  and  the  value  of  the  crops 


Carbo- 
hydrates 

Ash 

74.25 

1.45 

73.86 

1.50 

71.36 

2.14 

71.28 

1.85 

74.21 

1.50 

72.99 

1.69 

70.69 

1.80 

71.32 

1.66 

70.35 

1.49 

70.79 

1.65 

68.59 

2.56 

74.48 

1.38 

72.27 

2.18 

70.33 

2.05 

71.42 

2.04 

70.74 

1.57 

71.82 

1.78 

70.40 

1.50 

69.80 

2.40 

248  UNIVERSITY  OF   CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 

as  feed  better  understood  it  will  doubtless  lend  a  strong  impetus  to 
the  production  of  this  crop. 

Danger  from  Poisoning. — Considerable  apprehension  is  felt  re- 
garding the  danger  to  stock  from  poisoning  where  the  sorghums  are 
fed  green.  It  is  true  that  plants  which  have  been  stunted  in  their 
growth  sometimes  develop  prussic  (hydrocyanic)  acid  in  their  leaves, 
which  is  quickly  fatal  to  the  animals  which  eat  it.  Most  of  the  loss 
from  poisoning,  however,  has  occurred  by  pasturing  stock  on  second- 
growth  sorghums  after  the  first  crop  has  been  removed.  This  second 
growth  is  made  at  a  season  of  the  year  when  the  soil  is  dry  and  the 
conditions  for  growth  not  wholly  favorable.  The  first  growth  seldom, 
if  ever,  causes  trouble  and  can  be  either  pastured  or  fed  green  with- 
out danger.  In  curing,  the  prussic  acid  disappears,  so  there  is 
absolutely  no  danger  in  feeding  the  stover  or  fodder. 

ENEMIES  OF  THE  GRAIN  SORGHUMS 

The  grain  sorghums  grown  in  this  state  have  been  remarkably  free 
from  pests,  either  in  the  form  of  insects  or  diseases.  The  sorghum 
grain  smut  is  sometimes  met  with,  but  seldom  is  the  infection  bad 
enough  to  occasion  great  loss.  This  disease  resembles  somewhat  the 
stinking  smut  of  wheat  and  can  be  controlled  either  by  soaking  the 
seed  for  fifteen  minutes  in  hot  water  (132°  to  134°  F),  or  by 'dipping 
for  ten  minutes  in  a  solution  of  formaldehyde  (one  pound  of  for- 
maldehyde to  forty  gallons  of  water).  After  treatment  the  seed 
should  be  dried  immediately  and  seeded  as  soon  as  possible.  It  is 
stated4  on  good  authority  that  the  Yellow  Milo  is  immune  to  this 
disease. 

Undoubtedly  the  most  destructive  pest  of  the  grain  sorghums  in 
this  state  are  blackbirds,  and  their  control  is  not  only  difficult  but 
probably  impossible.  Some  of  the  varieties,  such  as  White  Durra 
and  the  White  Kafir,  are  apparently  preferred  by  the  birds,  but  the 
other  varieties  are  by  no  means  immune  to  their  attacks.  This  prefer- 
ence is  sometimes  made  use  of  by  planting  a  few  rows  of  the  varieties 
desired  by  the  birds  around  the  main  field  as  a  trap  crop  to  attract 
the  birds  from  the  main  portion  of  the  field.  It  is  necessary,  however, 
to  use  a  variety  which  matures  as  early  as  the  main  crop,  the  White 
Durra  probably  being  the  variety  most  commonly  used. 


*  Farmers '  Bulletin  288,  p.  26. 


GRAIN  SORGHUMS  249 


SUMMAEY 


1.  The  first  introduction  of  grain  sorghums  into  the  United  States 
occurred  in  1874  when  White  and  Brown  Durra  were  brought  to 
California  from  Egypt.  Since  that  date  their  production  in  this  state 
has  increased  gradually. 

2.  Sorghums  prefer  a  warm,  dry  climate,  relatively  low  in  humid- 
ity. Localities  with  relatively  cool  conditions  during  the  growing 
season  or  great  daily  temperature  ranges  are  least  suited  to  the  growth 
of  this  crop. 

3.  The  grain  sorghums  will  withstand  more  drouth  than  most 
other  field  crops  grown  in  California.  However,  since  they  are  sum- 
mer-grown crops,  they  must  depend  upon  the  water  stored  in  the  soil 
for  their  moisture  supply.  For  this  reason  free-working  loam  soils 
with  a  large  water-holding  capacity  are  to  be  preferred. 

4.  Variety  tests  at  the  University  Farm  at  Davis  indicate  that 
Dwarf  Milo  is  the  best  variety  for  grain.  All  the  Durras,  however, 
are  more  prolific  grain  producers  than  the  Kafirs. 

5.  In  preparing  the  field  for  sorghums  the  land  should  be  plowed 
in  the  fall  or  early  winter  to  facilitate  the  absorption  of  moisture  and 
the  subsequent  preparation  of  the  seed  bed.  A  well-prepared  seed  bed 
is  necessary  for  sorghums  in  order  to  insure  prompt  germination  of 
the  seed. 

6.  The  grain  sorghums  should  not  be  planted  until  the  soil  and 
atmosphere  are  quite  warm.  At  the  University  Farm  the  best  results 
were  obtained  by  planting  between  the  dates  of  April  10  and  20. 
The  corn  planter  fitted  with  sorghum  seed  plates  is  the  implement 
commonly  employed  for  planting  the  crop. 

7.  The  amount  of  seed  required  per  acre  will  vary  from  four  to 
seven  pounds,  depending  upon  conditions.  The  distance  between  the 
rows  and  the  rate  of  planting  in  the  row  must  be  governed  by  the 
variety  and  the  amount  of  moisture  available. 

8.  Listing  sorghums  has  not  been  practiced  to  any  great  extent 
but  may  be  advantageous  on  light  dry  soil  or  for  late  planting. 

9.  After  the  plants  come  up  they  should  be  cultivated  often 
enough  to  keep  the  weeds  in  check  and  to  maintain  the  mulch. 

10.  Grain  sorghums  are  usually  harvested  by  hand  although  the 
grain  header  or  the  corn  binder  may  be  employed.  After  harvesting 
it  is  necessary  to  cure  the  heads  thoroughly  before  threshing,  as  the 
seed  is  otherwise  apt  to  heat  in  storage. 

11.  For  forage  purposes  the  Kafirs  and  Milos,  because  of  their 
juicy  stems,  are  preferable  to  most  of  the  other  varieties.     In  using 


250  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 

the  grain  sorghums  for  silage  the  seed  should  be  allowed  to  mature 
before  harvesting  in  order  to  secure  the  best  quality  of  silage. 

12.  Grain  sorghums  are  hard  on  the  soil  and  are  not  a  good  crop 
to  precede  such  a  rapid-growing  crop  as  barley.  This  effect,  however, 
can  be  overcome  by  plowing  the  field  and  allowing  it  to  lie  idle  for 
a  couple  of  months  before  seeding  to  another  crop.  Early  maturing 
varieties  of  grain  sorghums  may  be  used  as  a  second  crop  to  follow 
grain  hay. 

13.  Grain  sorghums  when  fed  either  as  grain  fodder  or  silage  are 
but  slightly  inferior  to  corn  in  feed  value.  Second-growth  sorghums 
may  develop  prussic  acid,  which  is  poisonous  to  stock ;  the  first  crop, 
however,  seldom  if  ever  develops  poison,  nor  is  this  found  in  the  dry 
forage. 

14.  The  worst  enemies  of  grain  sorghums  in  California  are  black- 
birds, against  which  no  adequate  means  of  control  have  been  devised. 


STATION  PUBLICATIONS   AVAILABLE   FOE  FREE   DISTRIBUTION 


1897. 

1902. 
1903. 
1904. 
1914. 

1915. 

1916. 


REPORTS 

Resistant  Vines,   their  Selection,   Adaptation,   and  Grafting.      Appendix  to  Viticultural 

Report  for  1896. 
Report  of  the  Agricultural   Experiment   Station   for   1898-1901. 
Report  of  the  Agricultural   Experiment   Station  for   1901—03. 
Twenty-second  Report  of  the  Agricultural   Experiment   Station  for   1903—04. 
Report  of  the  College  of  Agriculture   and  the  Agricultural   Experiment   Station,   July, 

1913-June,    1914. 
Report  of  the  College  of  Agriculture  and  the  Agricultural   Experiment   Station,    July, 

1914-June,    1915. 
Report  of  the  College  of  Agriculture   and  the  Agricultural   Experiment   Station,    July, 

1915-June,    1916. 

BULLETINS 


No. 

207. 
208. 
212. 
213. 
216. 


225. 
230. 
241. 
242. 
244. 
246. 
248. 

249. 
250. 
251. 


few      252. 
253. 

255. 
257. 


No. 

65. 
69. 

70. 

76. 
82. 

107. 

108. 
109. 


113. 
114. 
115. 
117. 

118. 
121. 

124. 
126. 
127. 
128. 
129. 
130. 
131. 
132. 
133. 
134. 
135. 
136. 
137. 
138. 
139, 


The  Control  of  the  Argentine  Ant. 

The  Late  Blight  of  Celery. 

California  White  Wheats. 

The  Principles  of  Wine-Making. 

A  Progress  Report  Upon  Soil  and  Cli- 
matic Factors  Influencing  the  Com- 
position of  Wheat. 

Tolerance  of  Eucalyptus  for  Alkali. 

Enological  Investigations. 

Vine  Pruning  in  California,  Part  I. 

Humus  in  California  Soils. 

Utilization  of  Waste  Oranges. 

Vine  Pruning  in  California,   Part  II. 

The  Economic  Value  of  Pacific  Coast 
Kelps. 

Stock-Poisoning  Plants  of  California. 

The  Loquat. 

Utilization  of  the  Nitrogen  and  Organic 
Matter  in  Septic  and  Imhoff  Tank 
Sludges. 

Deterioration  of  Lumber. 

Irrigation  and  Soil  Conditions  in  the 
Sierra  Nevada  Foothills,  California. 

The   Citricola    Scale. 

New  Dosage  Tables. 


No. 
261. 

262. 

263. 
264. 
265. 
266. 

267. 
268. 
270. 


271. 

272. 
273. 

274. 

275. 

276. 
277. 
278. 
279. 


CIRCULARS 

No. 

The  California   Insecticide  Law.  140. 

The  Extermination  of  Morning-Glory. 

Observations    on    the    Status    of    Corn 

Growing  in    California.  141. 

Hot   Room   Callusing. 

The     Common     Ground     Squirrels     of  142. 
California. 

Spraying  Walnut  Trees  for  Blight  and  143. 
Aphis  Control. 

Grape  Juice.  144. 

Communitv   or   Local   Extension   Work  145. 
by  the  High  School  Agricultural  De- 
partment. 146. 

Correspondence  Courses  in  Agriculture. 

Increasing  the  Dutv  of  Water.  147. 

Grafting  Vinifera  Vineyards.  148. 

The    Selection    and    Cost    of    a    Small  150. 

Pumping  Plant.  151. 

The  County  Farm  Bureau.  152. 

Some    Things    the    Prospective    Settler 

Should  Know.  153. 

Alfalfa   Silage  for  Fattening   Steers. 

Spraying  for  the  Grape  Leaf  Hopper.  154. 

House  Fumigation. 

Insecticide  Formulas.  155. 

The  Control  of  Citrus  Insects.  156. 

Cabbage  Growing  in   California.  157. 

Spraying  for  Control  of  Walnut  Aphis.  158. 

When  to  Vaccinate  against  Hog  Cholera.  159. 

County  Farm   Adviser.  160. 

Control  of  Raisin   Insects.  161. 

Official  Tests  of  Dairy  Cows.  162. 

Melilotus  Indica. 

Wood  Decay  in  Orchard  Trees.  163. 

The  Silo  in  California  Agriculture. 

The    Generation    of   Hvdrocvanic    Acid  164. 

Gas  in  Fumigation  by  Portable  Ma-  165. 
chines. 


Melaxuma  of  the  Walnut,  "Juglans 
regia." 

Citrus  Diseases  of  Florida  and  Cuba 
Compared  with   Those  of  California. 

Size  Grade  for  Ripe  Olives. 

The  Calibration  of  the  Leakage  Meter. 

Cottonv   Rot  of  Lemons   in   California. 

A  Spotting  of  Citrus  Fruits  Due  to  the 
Action  of  Oil  Liberated  from  the  Rind. 

Experiments  with  Stocks  for  Citrus. 

Growing  and  Grafting  Olive  Seedlings. 

A  Comparison  of  Annual  Cropping,  Bi- 
ennial Cropping,  and  Green  Manures 
on  the  Yield  of  Wheat. 

Feeding  Dairv  Calves  in  California. 

Commercial  Fertilizers. 

Preliminary  Report  on  Kearney  Vine- 
yard Experimental  Drain. 

The  Common  Honey  Bee  as  an  Agent 
in   Prune   Pollination. 

The  Cultivation  of  Belladonna  in  Cali- 
fornia. 

The  Pomegranate. 

Sudan  Grass. 

Grain   Sorghums. 

Irrigation  of  Rice  in  California. 


The  Practical  Application  of  Improved 
Methods  of  Fermentation  in  Califor- 
nia Wineries  during  1913  and  1914. 

Standard  Insecticides  and  Fungicides 
versus  Secret  Preparations. 

Practical  and  Inexpensive  Poultry  Ap- 
pliances. 

Control  of  Grasshoppers  in  Imperial 
Valley. 

Oidium  or  Powdery  Mildew  of  the  Vine. 

Suggestions  to  Poultrymen  concerning 
Chicken  Pox. 

Jellies  and  Marmalades  from  Citrus 
Fruits. 

Tomato   Growing  in  California. 

"Lungworms." 

Round  Worms  in  Poultry. 

Feeding  and  Management  of  Hogs. 

Some  Observations  on  the  Bulk  Hand- 
ling of  Grain  in  California. 

Announcement  of  the  California  State 
Dairy  Cow  Competition,   1916-18. 

Irrigation  Practice  in  Growing  Small 
Fruits  in  California. 

Bovine  Tuberculosis. 

How  to  Operate  an  Incubator. 

Control  of  the   Pear  Scab. 

Home  and  Farm  Canning. 

Agriculture   in   the   Imperial  Valley. 

Lettuce    Growing   in    California. 

Potatoes  in  California. 

White  Diarrhoea  and  Coccidiosis  of 
Chicks. 

Fundamentals  Affecting  the  Food  Sup- 
ply of  the  United  States. 

Small  Fruit  Culture  in  California. 

Fundamentals  of  Sugar  Beet  under 
California  Conditions. 


